Dental Medicine · Year 2 · MU Plovdiv
Biochemistry
The full MU Plovdiv syllabus for Biochemistry, Dental Medicine, Year 2: 63 topics, 50 topics with a free study note (5 hours of reading), and 648 flashcards. Updated 10 November 2026.
- syllabus topics
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- 50
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- 648
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Syllabus
The topics in the order of the MU Plovdiv syllabus. Each one with a note opens in AceMed once you're signed in.
I. General part 8 topics
- 1. Proteins – functions and structure. Amino acids – types and classification. Biologically important oligopeptides and polypeptides. Molecular forms of proteins (hetero-, iso- and alloproteins). Levels of protein structures. Examples of proteins with quaternary structure – lactate dehydrogenases and hemoglobin. Denaturation of the proteins.2: Proteins... · 3. SECONDARY, TERTIARY, AND QUATERNARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS:13 min · 36 cards
- 2. Nucleotides – composition and structure. Free nucleotides of biologic significance. Nucleic acids – composition and structure. DNA and RNA. Levels of organization of DNA – nucleosomes and chromosomes. Types of RNA molecules – mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, miRNA.5. Nucleic Acids – Types and Biological Role. · 6. Primary structure of Nucleic acids14 min · 25 cards
- 3. Enzymes – general concept of enzyme catalysis. Chemical nature of the enzyme molecules Cofactors (coenzymes and prosthetic groups) – chemical nature. Active site. Enzyme specificity. Enzyme classification and nomenclature.7. Characteristics of Enzymes3 min · 10 cards
- 4. Enzyme kinetics – influence of the concentration of the enzyme or its substrate on the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction, enzyme units. Influence of the temperature and pH on the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction. Irreversible and reversible inhibition. Competitive and non-competitive inhibitors.8. Enzyme Kinetics · 9.Effect of pH and Temperature on Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions11 min · 20 cards
- 5. Regulation of the enzyme activity. Regulation by altering the absolute amount of the enzyme. Regulation by altering the activity of the enzyme – proenzymes, reversible covalent modification, allosteric regulation, etc.9.Effect of pH and Temperature on Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions · 10. Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation11 min · 20 cards
- 6. Clinical significance of enzymes: functional and non-functional plasma enzymes – examples. Role in the diagnosis of myocardial infarction, hepatitis, pancreatitis, prostatitis, cancer of the bones, etc.11. Isozymes5 min · 10 cards
- 7. Water-soluble vitamins – chemical structure, metabolism and biochemical significance. Diseases caused by vitamin deficiencies.62: WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS. METABOLIC ROLE.4 min · 10 cards
- 8. Fat-soluble vitamins – chemical structure, metabolism and biochemical significance. Diseases caused by vitamin deficiencies and overloading.63: LIPID SOLUBLE VITAMINS. METABOLIC ROLES.4 min · 10 cards
II. Bioenergetics 5 topics
- 9. Bioenergetics – general laws of thermodynamics. Coupling of endergonic with exergonic processes. Types of macroergic bonds and compounds. Central role of the system ATP/ADP.Being written
- 10. Biological oxidation – general concept, redox systems and redox potential. Oxidoreductases. Substrates of the enzymes of biological oxidation and final hydrogen acceptors. Redox systems with + + biological significance: NAD /NADH, NADP /NADPH, FMN/FMN.H2, FAD/FADH2, ubiquinone/ubiquinol, cytochromes (heme), lipoate, ascorbate.13. Characteristics of Biological Oxidation8 min · 10 cards
- 11. Oxidative phosphorylation – definition. Oxidative phosphorylation at the substrate level – reactions. Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoacids: pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes – structure and cofactors.14. Oxidative Phosphorylation at Substrate Level… · 16. Chemiosmotic Theory for the Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation11 min · 20 cards
- 12. Oxidative phosphorylation in the respiratory chain – molecular composition of respiratory chain, enzyme complexes and redox-systems, substrates. The mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation in the respiratory chain – Chemiosmotic theory of Mitchel. Uncoupling agents and inhibitors of the oxidative phosphorylation.15. RESPIRATORY CHAIN5 min · 10 cards
- 13. Free oxidation – definetion. Termogenesis – regulation, brown adipose tissue, role of thermogenin. Metabolic reactions of free oxidation – oxidase reactions, microsomal and peroxisomal oxidation, short electron transport chains in the endoplasmic reticulum.17. Uncoupled Oxidations...5 min · 10 cards
III. Intermediate exchange (metabolism) 33 topics
- 14. Metabolism – general characteristics of anabolic and catabolic processes. Key metabolites (role of pyruvate and acetyl-CoA). Phases of the aerobic metabolism.Being written
- 15. Citric acid cycle – importance in catabolism and anabolism, chemical reactions, energetic balance. Connection with carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism. Mechanisms of regulation.18. Citric Acid Cycle4 min · 10 cards
- 16. General principles and reactions of carbohydrate metabolism – carbohydrates in food, digestion and absorption in the intestinal tract. Enzyme deficiencies (lactase deficiency) and malabsorption. Transport of monosaccharaides across the membranes. Major reactions and key metabolites in the metabolism of carbohydrates in the cells.Being written
- 17. Glycolysis – biological importance in catabolism and anabolism, chemical reactions, energy production under anaerobic and aerobic conditions, regulation, tissue specificity. Metabolic fate of pyruvate and NADH in aerobic conditions: shuttle systems, pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction – regulation.19. Glycolysis…4 min · 10 cards
- 18. Gluconeogenesis – biological importance, substrates, cellular compartmentalization and tissue localization. Regulation.20. Gluconeogenesis4 min · 10 cards
- 19. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) of glucose metabolism – importance for the metabolism, chemical reactions, regulation. Role of PPP in the red blood cells. Enzymopathies: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.21. PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAYS…7 min · 10 cards
- 20. Metabolism of fructose and galactose – absorption, organ specificity of degradation, reactions. Enzymopathies – essential fructosuria and fructose intolerance, galactosemia type I and II. Lactose synthesis in the lactating mammary gland.22. Metabolism of Galactose…5 min · 10 cards
- 21. Glycogen metabolism – structure, synthesis and degradation. Regulation – mechanisms. Glycogen storage diseases.23. Glycogen4 min · 10 cards
- 22. Regulation of the glucose metabolism – maintenance of the blood glucose concentration. Regulatory enzymes and hormones. Mechanisms. Hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, glycosuria.24. Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism and Blood Glucose Levels4 min · 10 cards
- 23. Lipids – properties, classification and biological functions. Lipid digestion and absorption. Lipid transporters in the blood (lipoprotein complexes) – composition, structure, synthesis and degradation, apolipoproteins, functional importance of the different lipoprotein complexes.25. Lipids – Classification · 32. TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS IN ORGANISM. TYPES - COMPOSITION,12 min · 20 cards
- 24. Degradation and synthesis of triacylglycerols (TAG). Glycerol metabolism. Fate of fatty acids. Regulation of TAG degradation and synthesis in the adipose tissue.27. Desaturation of Fatty Acids…6 min · 10 cards
- 25. Oxidation of fatty acids: β-oxidation of fatty acids with odd- and even number of carbon atoms. Carnitine shuttle. Energy balance. Regulation.25. Lipids – Classification5 min · 10 cards
- 26. Metabolism of ketone bodies. Ketogenesis and ketolysis. Regulation. Ketosis, ketonuria, ketoacidosis.29. Ketogenesis4 min · 10 cards
- 27. Fatty acids biosynthesis – chemical reactions, cellular compartmentalization and tissue localization, regulation. Citrate shuttle. Elongation of fatty acid chain and synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acid (desaturation).26. BIOSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS… · 27. Desaturation of Fatty Acids…10 min · 20 cards
- 28. Synthesis and degradation of phospholipids. Biological function of phospholipase A1, A2, C and D. Sphingolipids – types, structure, importance. Sphingolipidoses.28. METABOLISM OF GLYCEROPHOSPHATIDES…7 min · 10 cards
- 29. Metabolism of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) – structure and metabolic functions. Synthesis and biological role of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, resolvins, etc. Steroid and Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs, NSAIDs) – mechanism of action.27. Desaturation of Fatty Acids…6 min · 10 cards
- 30. Cholesterol metabolism – synthesis, transport and excretion. Regulation.30. Cholestrol · 32. TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS IN ORGANISM. TYPES - COMPOSITION,12 min · 20 cards
- 31. Cholesterol derivatives. Synthesis of bile acids, regulation, cholelithiasis. Steroid hormones – general idea about the structure, synthesis and biological role. Synthesis, transport in the blood, activation and biological function of Vitamin D3.31. Derivatives of Cholesterol5 min · 10 cards
- 32. Digestion of the proteins and absorption of the amino acids in gastrointestinal tract. Nitrogen balance and final excreted products of nitrogen metabolism. General reactions of amino acids metabolism – transamination, oxidative deamination, trans-deamination, decarboxylation. Biologically active amines (biogenic amines) – examples and function. Clinical significance of transaminases.34. General Reactions of Amino Acid Catabolism…8 min · 10 cards
- 33. Metabolism of ammonia – generation, toxicity, ammonia detoxification: reductive amination of alpha-ketoglutarate, glutamine synthesis, role of ammoniagenesis in kidney. Urea cycle – regulation, metabolic disorders. Glucose-alanine cycle.35.Detoxification Ammonia4 min · 10 cards
- 34. General pathways for degradation of amino acid C-skeletons. Glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids – definition and common metabolites of their catabolism. Degradation of tyrosine and phenylalanine – disorders (phenylketonuria, tyrosinosis, albinism, alkaptonuria). Catabolism of branched amino acids – disorders.36. Catabolism of the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids3 min · 10 cards
- 35. Metabolism of the S-containing amino acids – biologically important derivatives. One-carbon-atom residues (groups) – types, sources, importance. Role of the S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), folic acid, Vitamin B12.37. One-Carbon Units2 min · 10 cards
- 36. Synthesis and biological role of specialized products from arginine (synthesis of creatine phosphate, citrulline, nitric oxide, polyamines), serine (synthesis of ethanolamine, choline, + phospholipids, sphingolipids), tryptophan (synthesis of serotonin, melatonin, NAD ), tyrosine (synthesis of thyroid hormones, catecholamines, melanin). Central role of glutamate and glutamine in metabolism of nitrogen compounds. Role of glutathione.Being written
- 37. Purine nucleotide metabolism – synthesis and degradation. Regulation. Disorders – hyperuricemia, gout, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, immune deficiency.39. Degradation of Purin...4 min · 10 cards
- 38. Pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism – synthesis and degradation. Regulation. Synthesis of CTP and TMP from UMP. Pyrimidine analogs as anticancer drugs. Enzimopathies – orotic aciduria.40. BIOSYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION OF PYRAMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES5 min · 10 cards
- 39. Metabolism and biological role of iron. Mechanisms of absorption of heme- and non-heme iron. Iron-binding and iron-storage proteins – transferrin, transferrin receptors, ferritin. Regulation – hepcidin.Being written
- 40. Heme and hemoproteins. Biosynthesis of porphyrins – tissue and cellular localization, regulation. Types of porphyrias. Structure and types of hemoglobin.41. Porphyrins5 min · 10 cards
- 41. Hemoglobin degradation – tissue localization. Heme oxygenase. Indirect and direct bilirubin. Bile pigments. Transportation of bile pigments in the body – enterohepatic circulation of bile pigments. Types of jaundice.42. Hemoglobin4 min · 10 cards
- 42. Integration of the metabolism. Interrelationships between metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Role of different tissues and organs.43. Metabolic Pathways of Carbohydrates · 51-Integrated Regulation of Metabolism at the Organism Level9 min · 20 cards
- 43. Mechanism of replication – DNA polymerases and other proteins involved in replication. Cell cycle and cell cycle control – role of cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, retinoblastoma protein, p53, inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases. Mechanisms of DNA repair.44. BIOSYNTHESIS OF DNA… · 59-Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Cycle Regulation9 min · 20 cards
- 44. Regulation of gene expression at the transcription level. Regulation of RNA polymerase II in eukaryotes by phosphorylation and suppressor proteins. Regulatory sequences in promoter regions in eukaryotes. Transcriptional factors and basic transcription complex.Being written
- 45. Regulation of gene expression at the translation level. Regulation of ferritin synthesis at the translation level. Posttranslational regulation of proteins. Proteolytic cleavage. Posttranslational modification by methylation, acetylation, myristoylation, prenylation. Phosphorylation and sulfatation of proteins. Vitamin C and vitamin K dependent modifications. Selenoproteins.Being written
- 46. Programmed cell death, apoptosis and necrosis. Main mechanisms of apoptosis. Intrinsic and extrinsic path of apoptosis. Involvement of mitochondria in apoptosis. The role of caspases. TNFR and Fas signaling pathways. Role of Bcl-2 family proteins.60-Apoptosis4 min · 10 cards
IV. Functional biochemistry 17 topics
- 47. Mechanisms of intra- and intercellular signaling – types of extracellular signals, receptors, classification, signal transduction mechanisms, cascades, etc. Role of protein kinases/protein phosphatases and G-binding proteins. Characteristic features of the signal transduction pathways – amplification, convergence, divergence, integration, crosstalk.53- Transduction Systems for Peptide Hormones and second messengers4 min · 26 cards
- 48. Types of plasma membrane receptors – receptors associated with ion channels; G-protein coupled receptor (GPCRs); receptors with enzyme activity or associated with other proteins with enzyme activity. Types of second messengers (mediators) – cyclic AMP (cAMP), nitric oxide (NO), cyclic GMP (cGMP), inositol triphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol (DAG), calcium, calmodulin, phosphatidylinositol triphosphate (PIP3).53- Transduction Systems for Peptide Hormones and second messengers4 min · 10 cards
- 49. Hormones and mediators – classification, mechanism of action, basic principles of synthesis, degradation and regulation of their secretion.51-Integrated Regulation of Metabolism at the Organism Level5 min · 10 cards
- 50. Hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Hypothalamic-pituitary system – releasing hormones. Hypothalamic-adenohypophyseal axes – mechanisms of action and cellular signaling. Hormons of posterior part of pituitary gland – mechanisms of action and cellular signaling.Being written
- 51. Steroid hormones – gluco- and mineralocorticoids, male and female sex hormones. Regulation of secretion, mechanisms of action and cellular signaling.51-Integrated Regulation of Metabolism at the Organism Level5 min · 10 cards
- 52. Hormones regulating water-mineral metabolism – regulation of their secretion and mechanisms of signaling and action: antidiuretic hormone (ADH), renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, natriuretic peptides.Being written
- 53. Hormones of the pancreas – insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. Regulation of their secretion, biological effects, mechanisms of signaling and action. Gastrointestinal hormones.Being written
- 54. Catecholamines and thyroid hormones. Regulation of their secretion, biological effects, mechanisms of signaling and action.Being written
- 55. Pathobiochemical mechanisms of diabetes mellitus. Types of diabetes. Metabolic disorders, symptoms and complications of type I and II diabetes. Pathobiochemical mechanisms of complications in hyperglycemia – oxidative stress, sorbitol pathway, spontaneous non-enzymatic glycation of proteins – AGE and RAGE, activation of the DAG/PKC cascade.57-Diabetes Mellitus, Metabolic Changes in Type I and Type II…5 min · 10 cards
- 56. Biochemistry of connective tissue – cell types and extracellular matrix. Extracellular matrix proteins (collagen, elastin, fibronectin, fibrillin) – function, structure and synthesis. Types, structure and role of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans.69: Biochemical Processes In Epithelial And Connective Tissue4 min · 10 cards
- 57. Biochemical composition, molecular organization and metabolism in bone tissue. Bone mineralization – main mechanisms, hormonal effects. Calcium metabolism and factors influencing calcium homeostasis.70-Metabolism of Calcium And Phosphorus4 min · 10 cards
- 58. Biochemistry of blood. Types of blood cells. Red blood cells (RBC, erythrocytes): characteristic features of metabolism, enzymopathies and anemias. Types of leukocytes, role and characteristic features in their metabolism. Phagocytosis.66: BIOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND METABOLISM OF RED AND WHITE BLOOD CELLS6 min · 16 cards
- 59. Biochemistry of blood. Plasma proteins – fractions, representatives and biological role. Acute-phase proteins. Biochemistry of blood clotting process. Blood clotting cascade – extrinsic, intrinsic and common coagulation pathways. Vitamin K-dependent modifications. Fibrinolysis.Being written
- 60. Biochemistry of digestion – types of nutrients, composition and mechanism of action of digestive secretions and juices. Digestion and absorption of nutrients.64: Chemical composition and enzymes of the digestive fluids …4 min · 10 cards
- 61. Biochemistry of the liver – metabolic and excretory function. Synthesis of specific products. Biotransformation of xenobiotics. Ethanol metabolism.65: BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE LIVER6 min · 10 cards
- 62. Biochemistry of teeth – composition and function of dentin, cementum, dental pulp and enamel. Features in the mineralization of dental tissues.Being written
- 63. Biochemical features of saliva – composition and function of saliva; secretion of water, ions and proteins; hormones in saliva.47. Composition and functions of the saliva and gastric juice. Regulation of saliva and gastric juice secretion.3 min · 15 cards
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